This is certainly not my area of expertise. Sometimes winemakers have these long reports about the weather and wine making process, and I’ll just skip down to the tasting notes because as a consumer, that’s mostly all I care about. At the same time, I’ve read enough about wine and done enough visits to wineries to know some of the important choices winemakers make in the vineyard and winery and how those choices may affect the price, quality, style and characteristics of your wine. Thus, when you read a wine description or visit a winery, some of these terms will be tossed around that could help you know what type of wine you might be getting. I will try to keep this general and simple for your sake and my sake.
In the vineyard
At the most essential level, the quality and characteristics of a wine depend on its terroir, grape varieties (cepa in Spanish) and how those two interact. Terroir is considered everything in the environment that the vine grows in such as the soil, elevation, climate, and sun exposure. The type of grape variety can give a wine certain characteristics too (see the regions, tourism and varieties section for more details). Furthermore, some types of grapes grow and express themselves better in certain terroir. You can’t simply take a clone from Burgundy and expect it to thrive anywhere else in the world. Therefore, the first choice of a winemaker is finding the best terroir and the best grape(s) for that terroir. For example, some grapes are better in warmer climates or cooler climates. A bottle of Petrus from Bordeaux is considered worth a thousand dollars because its Merlot is grown on a rare blue clay that supposedly imparts its unique and rich character. Additionally, each variety can be spliced into a specific root stock, chosen to best express the characteristics derived from the terroir. Because winemaking requires a combination of all these things, the human component (the heritage of knowledge) is often considered part of terroir as well.
Soil type is important because the vines absorb nutrients from the soil. Paradoxically, a good soil type for wine grapes is actually one that is not very fertile. Wines, much like people, need to be challenged and struggle to have their roots dig deeper in search of nutrients. Winemakers claim this helps them gain more complexity and character. On the other hand, vines can not get too much water or else they will be fat, diluted, and without character. Therefore, another large factor is drainage. Certain types of soils on slopes with good drainage allow the vines to just get enough water but not too much.
Dryfarming is also a choice winemakers can decide, though it may also be a regulatory requirement in some parts of Europe. This means they don’t irrigate or add additional water other than what Mother Nature provides. Again, this makes the roots dig deeper and the berries become more concentrated and complex. This also gives more variance to each vintage. Certain terroirs like clay soils can hold water better when there’s not enough rain but that affects the drainage when there’s too much rain. Root stock selection is important here. However, in much of Chile and in California, where they are suffering from droughts, they do some form of irrigation to regulate the amount of water the vines get. Winemakers may also choose to do something called greening. They can grow other plants between vines to help compete with the vines for water.
Heat retention of the soil type is another factor. If the soil retains heat, it can ripen the grapes even when the sun has gone down. Darker soils, rocky soils and granite all absorb heat better than soils like sand or silt.
The age of the vines is also an important factor. Old vines (for some at least 25-30 years old but for most 50+ years) work harder to produce grapes. This leads to less grapes overall, but more concentrated smaller and complex berries. Younger vines may yield more grapes, but have less quality. Yield is another term you may hear, and for high quality wines, lower yields generally means higher quality wines. This is another reason why some wines are more expensive since they have less grapes. Obviously, there are other negative factors in the weather that may lower yields such as mildew, frost or hail. However, this is more of an economic issue for the grower than necessarily about the quality. Another thing winemakers can choose to do is green harvesting, which means removing grape bunches during the summer to allow the other grapes to ripen better and concentrate flavor. This again means lower yields but better quality grapes. At the same time, there’s no one size fits all formula for yield or any of these techniques; Each winery has to balance their own terroir with their winemaking philosophy, and the changing climate makes it even more complex.
Climate and sun exposure are also important factors. Too much sun and heat mean raisiny overripe wines. Too little sun can make wines green and austere. For example, Chile has the advantage of having constant proximity to the ocean and a mountain range that holds the cool ocean air. This makes cool nights to help balance the hot and sunny days, which makes balanced and fresh wines. Winemakers can also practice leaf removal on certain parts of the vines to help some grapes have more sun exposure and air circulation to improve grape quality and avoid diseases.
There are many other growing factors, which might be overkill from a consumer’s perspective. However, I should mention that more and more wineries are practicing organic, bio-dynamic or natural wine making methods (here’s a good summary). These methods aren’t exactly the same. They all mean several things during the process of winemaking and there’s no one standard certification or definition, but one important thing that consumers might want to know is that for all of them, it should mean the elimination of pesticides, genetically modified products and certain chemicals that can seep into the vines. Organic and bio-dynamic are focused on what happens in the vineyard while natural winemaking means less or no additives and minimal intervention in general at all stages. On the other hand, bio-dynamic is much more prescriptive despite being organic and is sort of religious in its practices. Bottom line, all these practices simply mean the winemaker has to pay more attention to their vines, which is generally a positive thing for producing a good wine. Hence, many wine buffs prefer organic and bio-dynamic producers for the quality in addition to possible health reasons. Natural wine, however, is more controversial among wine buffs (see below about yeasts and sulfur). Be aware that these terms don’t necessarily guarantee quality and can be marketing ploys, but they often cost more to produce if truly practiced.
The next big choice is how or when to harvest. The weather during harvest is best when it’s dry. Winemakers must also decide what level of ripeness is ideal for their wine, so you’ll hear winemakers talk about harvest dates being earlier or later in the Fall depending on the weather that year and the winemaker’s personal preference of ripeness in the wine. Ripeness is measured in Brix by the way, so you may hear a winemaker talking about picking at Brix 21-26. If grapes are picked too late or grown in hot weather, they may also lack acidity or freshness. Wine descriptions often include a pH which range between 3 and 4, with a lower pH meaning higher acidity. Around 3-3.4 is typical for whites while 3.3-3.6 is normal for reds. Global warming is leading to faster ripening, leading wine producers to harvest earlier and earlier. Hand harvesting is another sign of a higher quality wine compared to machine harvested. Hand harvesting ensures that grape bunches are not bruised, and arrive to the winery in pristine shape, thereby avoiding early oxidation and premature uncontrolled fermentation. This is why you’ll see bottles that say hand-picked implying their wine is better and more expensive because of the extra labor and care.
In the winery
The next process is the grape selection. The higher end wines are of course going to be more selective. Some wineries have machines that do optical sorting. In addition, certain blocks of the vineyard which tend to produce the best wines might be set apart and used only for their top wine.
Another choice they have is to destem or partially destem before crushing. The stems in whole cluster/bunch fermentation or partial whole cluster fermentation give the wine more tannic structure and herbal, spicy character, but obviously it can also make the wine taste too vegetal or stemmy. This can depend on the ripeness of the stems.
Some producers that use whole clusters also do carbonic maceration or semi-carbonic maceration, which helps to keep red wines fruitier and less tannic by letting them ferment from the inside in an high CO2 and oxygen-free environment. These methods are most common in Beaujolais and with some Cabernet Franc in the Loire.
Another option is whole berry fermentation. In this case, grapes are destemmed but not crushed. It creates a more limited carbonic maceration and allows the winemaker to control the tannins and color in the skins better.
In addition, producers have a choice of yeast they can use for fermentation. Some choose native yeasts found in the vineyard naturally as opposed to commercial cultured yeasts. The latter gives you more control and consistency, but wild native yeasts can give wines more complexity. However, the complex smells can be too stinky and inconsistent for those who are not used to it and this is why some wine drinkers don’t like natural wines. Sulfur is used to kill the organisms that can cause some of these stinky aromas and tastes, which is why natural wine makers who don’t use sulfur have to either embrace them or be impeccably clean in their processing. Some natural winemakers do add a minimal amount of sulfur though while for others, their definition of natural wine means absolutely no additives, including sulfur.
Here’s a good article about whether one of these tastes typically called “mousy” that appears more often in natural wines without sulfur is a fault or not. Just be aware that the topic of natural wine can be controversial among winemakers and wine lovers with some choosing only to drink natural wine and others choosing never to drink natural wines. Most are in between like me. In a nutshell, I mainly care about the quality of a wine no matter if they’re natural or not. At the same time, I like diversity and wines to express their terroir, so I appreciate less intervention and natural yeasts when possible. However, it’s proven that sulfur (at the amounts added in wine and that also naturally occur in wine) is not harmful unless you’re allergic, so I’m not opposed to some use of it to prevent off-putting flavors. On the other hand, everyone has a different palate and sensitivity/tolerance to certain flavor profiles, so to each their own.
Speaking of yeast, after fermentation, wines can also sit in their lees, or dead yeast cells to add more complexity. This is most common for white wines. It can add creaminess to the feel of the wine and bready/pastry notes to the wine, especially sparkling wines. You may also see the terms fine lees and racking. Racking is simply moving the wine from one vessel to another, but extra racking is often done to get rid of the gross or thick lees so that the wine only ages on the thin or fine lees. Some stir the lees (bâttonage, or bastoneos in Spanish) into suspension rather than let them settle at the bottom to add more effect from the lees. A few producers, especially with Sherry and with whites in the Jura, allow a thin layer of yeast (called a veil of flor or velum) to grow on top of the wine. This protects it from oxygen but the process gives it an oxidative style that can add nutty flavors.
Contact time with skins is an important factor in what type of wine you make. Whites have little to no contact time with skins. Hence, you can even have a white wine made from red grapes if there’s no skin contact time since the flesh is white. White wines made from white grapes with skin contact time are called Orange wines (or skin-contact whites) because the skin contact sometimes gives the wine an orange color. These tend to have more body and tannins than normal whites. Short contact time with skins with red grapes is a way to make rosés while red wines from red grapes have more contact time with skins to get its color. There are also teinturier grapes which have red flesh that can add color in addition to red skins.
For red wines they must choose how much time to leave the juice in contact with the skins. Extended maceration (or extended time the juice is contact with the skins and seeds) after fermentation can be done to add color, tannins and flavor. Cold soak, or cold maceration is a similar way to extract color and flavor with extended skin contact, but this happens before fermentation at cold temperatures to keep it from fermenting.
In addition to extended maceration, winemakers have other ways to choose how much extraction (of grape material to give the wine color, flavor and tannins) they choose to do. As the juice ferments, the yeast generates alcohol and carbon dioxide. As these carbon dioxide rise to escape, they lift the grape skins, stems and pulp to the surface, forming a compact cap which floats on top of the wine. In order to improve contact with the wine and the cap to increase extraction and reduce heat from cooking the wines, winemakers can use pumping over (remontage in French or remontaje in Spanish) or punching down (pigeage in French or pisoneo/bazuqueo in Spanish), which basically are ways to submerge the cap to extract more into the wine. Pumping over is usually the lighter form of extraction used for more lighter varieties. Extraction can come during pressing too although some producers may elect not to use press juice to avoid over-extraction.
The term over-extraction is when people feel a wine is too tannic, bitter, or over the top in flavor from too much extraction. People who like more elegant classic wines might be prone to say this about big New World wines, whose winemakers try to push their wine to the limit to have as much flavor, color and structure as possible. The amount of extraction should be commensurate with the quality of the grapes. Sometimes winemakers try to overdo what Mother Nature gave them.
Related to extraction (but also other aspects of winemaking such as vineyard management, harvest time, and post fermentation techniques) is the trendy term phenolics. If you google the term, you often get long explanations using organic-chemistry. Most wine pros are basically referring to the winemaker’s management of the mouthfeel/structure of the wine based on the quality, size and amount of its phenols, which come from pulp, skins and seeds of a grape. Oak and other additives may also add phenolics to a lesser degree. Although some types of phenols (anthocyanins) are related to the color of the wine, phenolics is often used as a synonym to talk about tannin quality. The amount, quality and size of the tannins affect the feel (astringency to silky) and taste (ripeness to bitterness) of wine, which can be enhanced or decreased by the balance of alcohol, acid and sugar. Since winemaking styles post-Robert Parker have been trending towards making wines that are both concentrated and acidic for long term aging while also being approachable young, how winemakers manage the phenolics throughout the entire process is key.
Most reds also undergo malolactic fermentation to give wines a creamy character, but this is a key choice in white wine making. Your stereotypical California Chardonnay for example is known for its buttery oily character while other whites without or less malolactic are more acidic with less body.
In addition, winemakers have a choice where to ferment and age their wines. They can choose oak, stainless steel or concrete, among others. The oak adds flavors and tannins while letting the wine slowly breathe and smooth out the rough tannins. The larger and the more used the oak vessel is, the less it imparts flavor the wine while still smoothing out tannins. There are also choices in type of oak with French and American oak being the most common. French oak tends to have tighter grains creating a more elegant subtle feel with chocolate, coffee and savory spices while American oak tends to make bolder, sweet spicy and vanilla flavored wines. The amount of oak, especially new oak, also affects the price of the wine since new oak barrels are expensive. The more time in new oak, the more expensive and complex it is usually although too much oak can block the natural complexities of the terroir and variety for some. Stainless steel is the most neutral vessel winemakers can use while concrete is also neutral but breathes better. Ancient practices of clay amphora aging are still used in places like Georgia and some modern winemakers have been experimenting with it too. Some may also choose to leave their wine in plastic containers.
Another choice for winemakers is fining and filtering their wines. Some elect not to do either. Fining means adding a product (for example egg whites or clays) to help proteins coagulate and settle out, clarifying whites or making reds less astringent. Filtering can help stabilize a wine and it removes the cloudiness of the wine’s color, but with technology today, there’s not much difference other than appearance. Some think unfiltered wines help keep the true flavor and complexity though.
While bottling, producers have a choice of different types of corks and screw-tops to seal a wine although there’s still limited research on how well screw-tops work in long term aging. The main issue is the type of aging: oxidative vs. reductive. Corks allow more oxidation than screw-tops which softens the wine over time and opens up more secondary and tertiary notes such as earthy and nutty flavors. However, too much oxidation is what makes a wine past its prime turning it into vinegar. Screw-caps tend to allow less oxygen which can slow oxidative aging keeping a wine fruitier and more primary but also lead to more reductive aging, which gives it more leather, mushroom and barnyard notes. However, screw-tops have at least one advantage over corks in that corks have a much higher probability of being ruined by cork-taint. There are also synthetic corks or ways to treat cork to prevent this. Screw-tops tend to be only used for cheaper near-term drinking wines though, except in Australia and New Zealand.
Producers then have a choice of using aluminum capsules or wax capsules. Wax capsules were more common historically until the 1980’s when aluminum capsules became the most common. There’s really not a big difference except personal preference although theoretically wax should provide a little more protection and is better for the environment.
Speaking of the environment, bottle weight and shape can affect the amount of packaging and fossil fuels that are used to transport wine. Many wineries, for marketing and/or tradition (i.e. regional bottles) use certain shaped bottles, and sometimes the bigger and heavier the bottle, the bigger the impression. However, this costs more and is bad for the environment. Bottle shape is really just aesthetics. Bottle color, however, is important for light refraction since light can damage the wine.
Lastly, some producers choose to keep their wines in bottle at the winery for months or years until they feel it is ready to consume while others release their wines immediately after bottling. Therefore, you might have the 2015 Brunello and 2012 Brunello Riserva coming out in 2020 because they’ve undergone extensive oak and bottle aging at the winery. This generally means the wine is more expensive.
Production Quality & Pricing
In conclusion, all these choices winemakers make affect the quality, style and price of the wine. When you buy a more expensive bottle of wine, you could be paying for the expertise of the winemaker, unique terroir, new oak barrels, lower yields from old vines, vintage weather, etc. However, a lot of price is dependent on prestige, reputation and advertising. For example, I heard that Chateau Latour, which is a huge property in Bordeaux making 15-20 thousands cases a year sparing no expense, only spends about 15 dollars a bottle to produce their wine from vine to bottle. Yet, their wine can sell for 800-1,200 dollars a bottle because it is considered one of the greatest most consistent wines in the world and has been adored for centuries. The demand is also boosted because of all the rich people who want to buy Latour as a social status symbol more than their love of wine.
I should also mention that the size of the vineyard and overall yield, which leads to overall bottle production (essentially the supply), can affect the price coupled with demand. This is why Burgundy is so expensive. Total production is so small compared to Bordeaux for example (around four times less), but so many people still want it.
As a collector, I do look at production numbers to help me evaluate a wine and its pricing. Anything under a 1,000 cases (of 12 bottles) is considered limited or micro-production. Around 5-10 thousand cases might be considered medium range and over 10 thousand is large. It’s not always an indicator of quality though. All the other factors mentioned here plus the amount of labor used to make the wine are also factors. Again, look at how many cases Latour makes while maintaining world class quality. However, as a collector, I’m attracted to rarer wines and will sometimes pay more for a rare wine rather than a higher production wine of equal quality. This is how the “cult wine” phenomena occurs: high quality small production leading to huge demand. This is how a current vintage bottle of Screaming Eagle can cost 3,000 dollars. They make only 500-800 cases, Robert Parker gave it huge scores and then rich people really want it.
Furthermore, some large wineries try to manipulate the supply and demand by making single vineyard or specialty cuvees from their best plots with even more wine making precision and care to have their own “cult wine” or “garage wine” (a term used in the 90’s for micro-production cuvees in Bordeaux) to sell at exorbitant prices. The dream as a wine enthusiast is to find the next Screaming Eagle, which initially sold for only 50 dollars, before it becomes cult. That’s why following the various movements in Chilean wine production is so exciting.
As a side note, there’s debate about whether single vineyard or exclusive plot wines are actually better. Is it mostly marketing? In theory, having multiple vineyards can help producers to make more balanced wines by including the different characteristics of each vineyard into one wine. However, in some cases there are large differences from vineyard to vineyard and you may prefer one to another or if you’re a connoisseur, you can enjoy the intellectual challenge of distinguishing each vineyard. In addition, they typically take more care of the single vineyard wine and are more selective with the grapes to improve overall quality to justify the increase price regardless of the nuances of vineyard. There’s typically less production too making it rarer.
Finally, as a wine geek and not just a collector, a rare wine might also be an inexpensive wine that is rare in other ways such as type of winemaking, variety, region, etc., so I can get as excited by a $20 rare grape variety as I would for a $300 wine.
*I did an experiment on two wines from different price ranges in a blog post, and here’s a nice video explaining the relationship between price and quality. Although I talk mostly about winemaking decisions, marketing and reputation, I should also mention how those play a factor in the pricing of the land and cost of grapes on that land. Plus, there are costs related to labor (a big reason why Chilean wines are cheaper) and taxes/tariffs. Then each country has their own rules of distribution which can add to the costs. The US has a complicated 3-tiered system and every state has different rules and taxes that add prices as a wine goes through the 3 tiers ( wine producer/importer, distributor, retailer/restaurant). At the same time, in certain states and when there’s huge demand, some stores are able to get direct imports and prices can be cheaper in the US than in their country of origin because the US buys more and also those wines have to compete with wines from all over the world in the US market. For example, Bordeaux and top-end Chilean wines can often be cheaper in the US than in France or Chile while Italian wines are typically a lot more in the US than in Italy since Italy exports less.
**Thanks to my friend and budding winemaker, David Gertiser, for helping me to correct some of my mistakes.